Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) & “India Stack” Diplomacy
Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) and India Stack Diplomacy
Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) and India Stack diplomacy represent India’s strategic use of open-source, population-scale digital platforms as instruments of soft power and developmental partnership. Guided by the principle of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, India promotes low-cost, interoperable digital systems, particularly among Global South countries, as alternatives to proprietary and expensive digital infrastructure models.
1. Core Concepts: DPI and India Stack
– Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI):
• Foundational digital systems built on open standards and interoperability.
• Operates at a population scale to deliver essential public and private services.
• Provides shared digital infrastructure upon which governments and private organizations can develop applications and services.
• Foundational digital systems built on open standards and interoperability.
• Operates at a population scale to deliver essential public and private services.
• Provides shared digital infrastructure upon which governments and private organizations can develop applications and services.
– India Stack:
• A collection of digital public goods and open Application Programming Interfaces (APIs).
• Organized into three major functional layers:
• A collection of digital public goods and open Application Programming Interfaces (APIs).
• Organized into three major functional layers:
1. Identity Layer (Presenceless):
• Based on Aadhaar, with over 144 crore identities issued.
• Electronic Know Your Customer (e-KYC) enables remote identity verification.
• Reduces the need for physical documentation and in-person verification.
• Based on Aadhaar, with over 144 crore identities issued.
• Electronic Know Your Customer (e-KYC) enables remote identity verification.
• Reduces the need for physical documentation and in-person verification.
2. Payments Layer (Cashless):
• Includes Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and Aadhaar Payment Bridge (APB).
• Enables real-time, low-cost and interoperable financial transactions.
• Supports digital payments across banks and payment applications.
• Includes Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and Aadhaar Payment Bridge (APB).
• Enables real-time, low-cost and interoperable financial transactions.
• Supports digital payments across banks and payment applications.
3. Data Empowerment Layer (Paperless and Consent-Based):
• Includes DigiLocker, eSign and the Account Aggregator (AA) framework.
• Enables secure storage, verification and sharing of digital documents.
• Supports consent-based access to personal financial information.
• Includes DigiLocker, eSign and the Account Aggregator (AA) framework.
• Enables secure storage, verification and sharing of digital documents.
• Supports consent-based access to personal financial information.
– Sectoral Extensions:
• CoWIN: Digital vaccination management.
• Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA): Digital health identity.
• Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC): Open digital commerce network.
• Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing (DIKSHA): Digital educational resources.
• Government e-Marketplace (GeM): Public procurement platform.
• Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance (UMANG): Access to government services through a common platform.
• CoWIN: Digital vaccination management.
• Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA): Digital health identity.
• Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC): Open digital commerce network.
• Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing (DIKSHA): Digital educational resources.
• Government e-Marketplace (GeM): Public procurement platform.
• Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance (UMANG): Access to government services through a common platform.
2. Pillars of India’s DPI Diplomacy
India has expanded its digital infrastructure partnerships through bilateral agreements, international payment connectivity and multilateral initiatives.
– Bilateral Agreements and Global Adoption:
• India has signed Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) with 24 countries for cooperation in population-scale digital infrastructure.
• DigiLocker-based solutions have been introduced in countries such as Kenya and Cuba.
• The Modular Open-Source Identity Platform (MOSIP) has been adopted for digital identity initiatives in over 25 countries.
• These partnerships support digital identity, public service delivery and technological cooperation.
• India has signed Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) with 24 countries for cooperation in population-scale digital infrastructure.
• DigiLocker-based solutions have been introduced in countries such as Kenya and Cuba.
• The Modular Open-Source Identity Platform (MOSIP) has been adopted for digital identity initiatives in over 25 countries.
• These partnerships support digital identity, public service delivery and technological cooperation.
– Cross-Border Payment Linkages:
• NPCI International Payments Limited (NIPL) promotes the international expansion of UPI.
• UPI payment acceptance or connectivity is available in several countries, including:
o United Arab Emirates (UAE).
o Singapore.
o France.
o Mauritius.
o Sri Lanka.
o Nepal.
o Bhutan.
o Qatar.
• Cross-border payment integration supports tourism, remittances and financial connectivity.
• It also facilitates international expansion opportunities for Indian financial technology companies.
• NPCI International Payments Limited (NIPL) promotes the international expansion of UPI.
• UPI payment acceptance or connectivity is available in several countries, including:
o United Arab Emirates (UAE).
o Singapore.
o France.
o Mauritius.
o Sri Lanka.
o Nepal.
o Bhutan.
o Qatar.
• Cross-border payment integration supports tourism, remittances and financial connectivity.
• It also facilitates international expansion opportunities for Indian financial technology companies.
– Multilateral Cooperation and G20 Initiatives:
• During India’s G20 Presidency in 2023, members endorsed the G20 Framework for Systems of Digital Public Infrastructure.
• The framework promotes common principles for developing and deploying DPI systems.
• The Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository (GDPIR) provides access to digital public infrastructure solutions and information.
• India contributed a significant collection of digital solutions to the repository.
• The One Future Alliance (OFA) was proposed to support financing, technical assistance and capacity building for DPI in low- and middle-income countries.
• During India’s G20 Presidency in 2023, members endorsed the G20 Framework for Systems of Digital Public Infrastructure.
• The framework promotes common principles for developing and deploying DPI systems.
• The Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository (GDPIR) provides access to digital public infrastructure solutions and information.
• India contributed a significant collection of digital solutions to the repository.
• The One Future Alliance (OFA) was proposed to support financing, technical assistance and capacity building for DPI in low- and middle-income countries.
– Knowledge Sharing and Open-Source Platforms:
• India Stack Global showcases 15 foundational digital platforms.
• Information about these platforms is available in all six official United Nations (UN) languages.
• India offered CoWIN as open-source software at no cost during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• These initiatives facilitate the exchange of digital technologies and implementation knowledge among countries.
• India Stack Global showcases 15 foundational digital platforms.
• Information about these platforms is available in all six official United Nations (UN) languages.
• India offered CoWIN as open-source software at no cost during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• These initiatives facilitate the exchange of digital technologies and implementation knowledge among countries.
3. Strategic and Geopolitical Significance
India’s DPI diplomacy provides developing countries with an additional model for building digital infrastructure.
Comparison of Global Digital Infrastructure Models
| Dimension | China’s Digital Silk Road (DSR) | Western Big-Tech Model | India’s DPI / India Stack Model |
|---|---|---|---|
| Core Driver | State-supported infrastructure, telecommunications and technology systems. | Private-sector proprietary platforms and ecosystems. | Public digital infrastructure based on open standards, with private-sector participation. |
| Cost and Access | Infrastructure projects involving public investment, commercial financing and bilateral agreements. | Commercial licensing, subscriptions and proprietary technology. | Modular digital infrastructure using open standards and reusable public digital goods. |
| Sovereignty and Data | Concerns may arise regarding surveillance, vendor dependence and data governance. | Risks include concentration of data and dependence on large technology companies. | Supports domestic governance, interoperability and national control over implementation and data policies. |
– Leadership in the Global South:
• Strengthens India’s technological and developmental partnerships with developing countries.
• Enables countries to introduce digital services without building every system independently.
• Promotes technological self-reliance and domestic digital capacity.
• Expands India’s influence in global discussions on digital governance.
• Strengthens India’s technological and developmental partnerships with developing countries.
• Enables countries to introduce digital services without building every system independently.
• Promotes technological self-reliance and domestic digital capacity.
• Expands India’s influence in global discussions on digital governance.
– Economic and Financial Technology Benefits:
• International expansion of UPI and RuPay strengthens India’s digital payment ecosystem.
• Creates additional payment channels alongside established international networks.
• Reduces dependence on individual proprietary payment platforms.
• Supports cross-border commerce and financial innovation.
• Opens international markets for Indian financial technology companies.
• International expansion of UPI and RuPay strengthens India’s digital payment ecosystem.
• Creates additional payment channels alongside established international networks.
• Reduces dependence on individual proprietary payment platforms.
• Supports cross-border commerce and financial innovation.
• Opens international markets for Indian financial technology companies.
– Digital Sovereignty:
• Promotes greater national control over digital infrastructure and data governance.
• Supports the adoption of interoperable technologies.
• Reduces the risk of dependence on a single technology provider.
• Allows participating countries to adapt digital systems to domestic requirements.
• Promotes greater national control over digital infrastructure and data governance.
• Supports the adoption of interoperable technologies.
• Reduces the risk of dependence on a single technology provider.
• Allows participating countries to adapt digital systems to domestic requirements.
4. Key Challenges and Concerns
– Domestic Digital Divide and Exclusion:
• Unequal internet access between rural and urban areas.
• Limited digital literacy among vulnerable populations.
• Biometric authentication failures may restrict access to essential services.
• Differences in device ownership and connectivity affect digital participation.
• Unequal internet access between rural and urban areas.
• Limited digital literacy among vulnerable populations.
• Biometric authentication failures may restrict access to essential services.
• Differences in device ownership and connectivity affect digital participation.
– Cybersecurity and Privacy Risks:
• Population-scale digital systems face risks of cyberattacks and unauthorized data access.
• Inadequate security practices can expose sensitive personal information.
• Implementation of the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023, is important for protecting personal data.
• Strong cybersecurity and transparent data governance are necessary for international trust.
• Population-scale digital systems face risks of cyberattacks and unauthorized data access.
• Inadequate security practices can expose sensitive personal information.
• Implementation of the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023, is important for protecting personal data.
• Strong cybersecurity and transparent data governance are necessary for international trust.
– Implementation Challenges in Partner Countries:
• Inadequate electricity and broadband infrastructure.
• Limited technical expertise and institutional capacity.
• Differences in legal and regulatory frameworks.
• High initial costs of integrating digital systems with existing infrastructure.
• Difficulties in maintaining and upgrading population-scale digital platforms.
• Inadequate electricity and broadband infrastructure.
• Limited technical expertise and institutional capacity.
• Differences in legal and regulatory frameworks.
• High initial costs of integrating digital systems with existing infrastructure.
• Difficulties in maintaining and upgrading population-scale digital platforms.
– Geopolitical Competition and Standardization:
• Competition among different international digital infrastructure models.
• Differences in technical standards and regulatory systems.
• Resistance to interoperability from established proprietary technology providers.
• Concerns regarding cross-border data flows and national security.
• Challenges in developing common international digital governance standards.
• Competition among different international digital infrastructure models.
• Differences in technical standards and regulatory systems.
• Resistance to interoperability from established proprietary technology providers.
• Concerns regarding cross-border data flows and national security.
• Challenges in developing common international digital governance standards.
5. Way Forward
– NITI Aayog’s DPI@2047 Roadmap:
• Align digital infrastructure development with the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.
• DPI 2.0: Expand digital infrastructure to support livelihoods, economic participation and improved service delivery.
• DPI 3.0: Develop advanced, integrated digital systems supporting broader economic prosperity.
• Strengthen domestic digital infrastructure while expanding international cooperation.
• Align digital infrastructure development with the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.
• DPI 2.0: Expand digital infrastructure to support livelihoods, economic participation and improved service delivery.
• DPI 3.0: Develop advanced, integrated digital systems supporting broader economic prosperity.
• Strengthen domestic digital infrastructure while expanding international cooperation.
– Five DPI Sutras:
1. Citizen Agency: Ensure individuals retain meaningful control over their digital identity and personal information.
2. Open Interoperability: Enable different digital systems and applications to communicate through common standards.
3. Techno-Legal Safeguards: Combine technological security with effective legal and regulatory protection.
4. Anti-Monopolization: Promote competition and prevent excessive concentration of digital infrastructure ownership.
5. Systemic Resilience: Build reliable, secure and scalable digital systems capable of managing disruptions.
1. Citizen Agency: Ensure individuals retain meaningful control over their digital identity and personal information.
2. Open Interoperability: Enable different digital systems and applications to communicate through common standards.
3. Techno-Legal Safeguards: Combine technological security with effective legal and regulatory protection.
4. Anti-Monopolization: Promote competition and prevent excessive concentration of digital infrastructure ownership.
5. Systemic Resilience: Build reliable, secure and scalable digital systems capable of managing disruptions.
– Blended Financing for the Global South:
• Strengthen financing mechanisms such as the Social Impact Fund and One Future Alliance.
• Combine Indian technical assistance with concessional international financing.
• Expand cooperation with multilateral organizations such as the World Bank and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
• Support electricity, broadband and digital infrastructure development in partner countries.
• Provide technical training and institutional capacity-building support.
• Encourage long-term maintenance, cybersecurity and local technological capabilities.
• Strengthen financing mechanisms such as the Social Impact Fund and One Future Alliance.
• Combine Indian technical assistance with concessional international financing.
• Expand cooperation with multilateral organizations such as the World Bank and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
• Support electricity, broadband and digital infrastructure development in partner countries.
• Provide technical training and institutional capacity-building support.
• Encourage long-term maintenance, cybersecurity and local technological capabilities.
Must Know Terms :
1. Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)
• Shared digital systems that enable the large-scale delivery of public and private services.
• Uses open standards and interoperable platforms to support digital identity, payments and data exchange.
2. India Stack
• A collection of digital public goods and open Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) developed in India.
• Its three main functional layers are identity (Aadhaar), payments (UPI) and data empowerment.
3. Digital Sovereignty
• A country’s ability to control its digital infrastructure, data governance and technology policies.
• Promotes technological independence, data protection and reduced dependence on foreign technology providers.
4. Unified Payments Interface (UPI)
• A real-time payment system developed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) and launched in 2016.
• Enables instant bank-to-bank transfers and merchant payments through interoperable mobile applications.
5. Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository (GDPIR)
• A global knowledge-sharing platform launched on 22 November 2023 during India’s G20 Presidency.
• Provides information on digital public infrastructure solutions to support their adoption and implementation across countries.
6. Modular Open-Source Identity Platform (MOSIP)
• An open-source technology platform developed at the International Institute of Information Technology Bangalore (IIIT-B).
• Enables governments to build and customize national digital identity systems using modular and interoperable technology.
MCQ :
Q1. With reference to Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), consider the following statements:
1. DPI is restricted to government-owned applications and cannot support privately developed services.
2. DPI provides foundational digital systems that can operate at a population scale.
3. Interoperability enables different applications and institutions to use shared digital infrastructure.
4. DPI necessarily requires proprietary technology and exclusive licensing arrangements.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only
Q2. Consider the following pairs regarding India Stack:
Digital Platform Functional Layer 1. Aadhaar Identity Layer 2. Aadhaar Payment Bridge Payments Layer 3. Account Aggregator Data Empowerment Layer 4. Open Network for Digital Identity Layer Commerce
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All four
(d) Only three
Q3. A country intends to introduce a digital system that enables citizens to store verifiable documents and share their financial information with authorized institutions based on consent.
Which of the following combinations would most appropriately serve these requirements?
(a) DigiLocker and Account Aggregator
(b) Aadhaar Payment Bridge and CoWIN
(c) ONDC and Government e-Marketplace
(d) DIKSHA and NPCI International Payments Limited
Q4. With reference to the international expansion of the Unified Payments Interface (UPI), consider the following statements:
1. NPCI International Payments Limited facilitates the international expansion of UPI.
2. International UPI connectivity may involve merchant payment acceptance as well as cross-border payment linkages.
3. The availability of UPI in a foreign country necessarily means that the entire domestic UPI ecosystem has been replicated there.
4. Cross-border UPI integration automatically eliminates all foreign exchange conversion charges.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 2 only
(d) 2 and 4 only
Q5. Consider the following pairs:
Digital Initiative Primary Function 1. ABHA Digital health identity 2. DIKSHA Digital educational resources 3. GeM Cross-border interbank settlement 4. UMANG Unified access to government services
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Q6. With reference to India’s initiatives during its G20 Presidency in 2023, consider the following statements:
1. The G20 Framework for Systems of Digital Public Infrastructure was endorsed during India’s Presidency.
2. The Global DPI Repository functions primarily as an international payment settlement mechanism.
3. The One Future Alliance was proposed to support financing and capacity building for DPI adoption.
4. The Global DPI Repository requires participating countries to adopt Indian digital platforms exclusively.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 3 and 4 only
Q7. Consider the following pairs:
Institution/Initiative Primary Role 1. MOSIP Modular digital identity infrastructure 2. NIPL International expansion of UPI 3. GDPIR Sharing information on DPI solutions 4. GeM Management of digital health records
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All four
(d) Only three
Q8. Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A):
Digital sovereignty does not necessarily require a country to develop every component of its digital infrastructure domestically.
Reason (R):
The adoption of open standards automatically guarantees complete national control over personal data, irrespective of the country’s legal and institutional framework.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) Both A and R are correct, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are correct, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is correct, but R is incorrect.
(d) A is incorrect, but R is correct.
Q9. A developing country receives access to an open-source digital identity platform without licensing charges. However, its implementation remains unsuccessful because of unreliable electricity, inadequate broadband connectivity and limited technical expertise.
Which of the following best explains this situation?
(a) Digital infrastructure adoption depends on foundational connectivity and institutional capacity.
(b) Digital identity systems can operate only in G20 member countries.
(c) Open-source technology cannot be implemented without proprietary licensing.
(d) Digital identity platforms cannot be operated by public institutions.
Q10. Consider the following statements regarding global digital infrastructure models:
1. China’s Digital Silk Road includes state-supported telecommunications and digital infrastructure projects.
2. Western Big-Tech platforms necessarily operate through open-source and non-proprietary technologies.
3. India’s DPI model promotes open standards with opportunities for private-sector innovation.
4. India Stack requires participating countries to surrender control over their domestic data governance frameworks.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 3 and 4 only
Q11. With reference to the challenges associated with population-scale digital infrastructure, consider the following statements:
1. Large-scale digital systems may face cybersecurity threats and unauthorized access to personal information.
2. The enactment of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, automatically eliminates all risks of data breaches.
3. Biometric authentication failures may prevent eligible individuals from accessing essential services.
4. Internet connectivity has no significant effect on the accessibility of digital public services.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 3 and 4 only
Q12. With reference to the Five DPI Sutras, consider the following statements:
1. Citizen agency emphasizes meaningful individual control over digital identity and personal information.
2. Open interoperability enables different digital systems to communicate through common standards.
3. Anti-monopolization promotes exclusive control of essential digital infrastructure by a single provider.
4. Systemic resilience involves avoiding the development of safeguards against operational disruptions.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1 and 2 only
Q13. Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A):
The paperless and cashless functions of India Stack serve different operational purposes.
Reason (R):
DigiLocker and eSign facilitate digital documentation, whereas UPI supports electronic payment transactions.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) Both A and R are correct, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are correct, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is correct, but R is incorrect.
(d) A is incorrect, but R is correct.
Q14. Consider the following pairs concerning challenges in DPI adoption and their possible responses:
Challenge Appropriate Response
1. Biometric authentication Alternative authentication
failures mechanisms
2. Poor digital connectivity Expansion of electricity and
broadband infrastructure
3. Risk of monopolization Exclusive dependence on a
single technology provider
4. Cybersecurity threats Removal of technical and
legal safeguards
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) 2 and 3 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only
(d) 3 and 4 only
Q15. With reference to the future development of India’s Digital Public Infrastructure, consider the following statements:
1. DPI 2.0 emphasizes expanding digital infrastructure to support livelihoods and economic participation.
2. DPI 3.0 envisages advanced digital systems contributing to broader economic prosperity.
3. Blended financing for DPI development excludes participation by multilateral financial institutions.
4. The One Future Alliance requires all developing countries to obtain compulsory certification before adopting digital public infrastructure.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 only
0 comment