Transnational Water Governance & River Treaties
Transnational Water Governance and River Treaties
Transnational water governance deals with the management, distribution and use of rivers shared by two or more countries. In South Asia, where floods, droughts and water scarcity are major concerns, river-water agreements have become closely connected with national security, regional cooperation and diplomatic relations.
1. The Global & Regional Context of Hydro-Diplomacy
Transboundary rivers account for approximately 60% of the world’s freshwater flows. In South Asia, water governance is shaped by differences between upper-riparian states (such as China and India) and lower-riparian states (such as Pakistan and Bangladesh). These differences influence water-sharing agreements, dam construction, hydropower development and flood management.
Global Legal Frameworks:
2. India’s Bilateral Transboundary Frameworks & Disputes
| Country | Shared River Systems | Primary Treaty / Framework | Key Disputes & Strategic Challenges |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pakistan | Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej | Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), 1960, concluded with the involvement of the World Bank | The treaty remained operational despite several periods of political and military tension. Following the 2025 Pahalgam terrorist attack, India announced that the treaty would be held in abeyance. Disputes over the Kishanganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects involve disagreements over proceedings before a Neutral Expert and a Court of Arbitration. India has also sought treaty modifications to address changing water requirements, climate conditions and hydropower development. |
| China | Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo), Indus | No comprehensive water-sharing treaty. Cooperation has involved the Expert Level Mechanism (ELM) and hydrological data-sharing arrangements. | China’s upstream position gives it considerable influence over the development of water infrastructure in Tibet. Construction of dams, including Zangmu, has raised concerns about downstream river flows and flood management. Interruptions in hydrological data sharing have also affected cooperation, particularly during the monsoon season. |
| Bangladesh | 54 shared rivers, including Ganga, Brahmaputra and Teesta | Ganga Water Treaty (1996), due for renewal in 2026; Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) | The proposed Teesta water-sharing agreement has remained pending since 2011, partly because of concerns raised by West Bengal. Seasonal water shortages affect agriculture and downstream river ecosystems. Water management and sedimentation around the Farakka Barrage also remain important issues in bilateral discussions. |
| Nepal | Kosi, Gandak, Mahakali | Kosi Agreement (1954), Gandak Agreement (1959) and Mahakali Treaty (1996) | The Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project has faced repeated delays over differences in benefit sharing and project implementation. River-related boundary disputes, including those connected with the historical Sugauli Treaty, remain sensitive. Heavy sedimentation and recurring monsoon floods create additional challenges for both countries. |
| Bhutan | Wangchhu, Sankosh, Manas | Bilateral Hydropower Cooperation Model | India supports hydropower development in Bhutan and imports surplus electricity generated by these projects. The Chukha and Tala hydropower projects are major examples. This cooperation provides electricity to India and revenue to Bhutan, making hydropower an important part of their economic relationship. |
3. Core Issues in Transboundary Water Governance
A. The Shift from Technical Allocation to Securitisation
Water-sharing agreements are no longer limited to the technical distribution of river water. They increasingly influence diplomatic relations, national security and economic cooperation.
Upstream countries have greater control over the construction and operation of dams and other river infrastructure, while downstream countries depend on predictable water flows for agriculture, drinking water and electricity generation.
India’s statement that “blood and water cannot flow together” reflects the growing connection between water-sharing arrangements and cross-border security concerns. Disagreements over water infrastructure, river-flow information and treaty implementation can therefore affect relations between neighbouring countries.
B. Climate Change and Ecological Challenges
Many major river-water treaties, including the Indus Waters Treaty, were negotiated before present-day climate challenges became prominent. Changes in Himalayan glaciers, rainfall patterns and river flows have increased pressure on existing water-sharing arrangements.
C. Sovereignty vs. Integrated River Basin Management
The management of international rivers involves a continuing debate between national control over water resources and cooperation across entire river basins.
The Harmon Doctrine is associated with the principle of absolute territorial sovereignty, under which a country claims extensive control over water resources within its territory.
In contrast, Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) considers the entire river basin as a connected geographical and ecological system.
Separate national approaches can create difficulties in flood management, pollution control, water allocation and environmental protection. Changes in upstream river conditions may directly affect downstream agriculture, fishing, settlements and local communities.
Coordinated river-basin management can help countries address these shared problems while protecting their respective water requirements.
4. Strategic Way Forward
Must Know Terms
1. Hydro-Diplomacy
The use of diplomatic negotiations, treaties and cooperation to manage water resources shared by two or more countries. It helps address disputes over water allocation, dams and river management.
2. Upper and Lower Riparian States
Upper-riparian states are located upstream along a shared river, while lower-riparian states are located downstream. Their geographical positions influence water availability, dam construction and water-sharing negotiations.
3. Equitable and Reasonable Utilisation
A principle of international water law that recognises the right of countries sharing a watercourse to use its resources fairly, considering factors such as population needs, existing uses and ecological conditions.
4. Hydro-Securitisation
The process through which water resources and water-sharing disputes become linked with national security, strategic interests and diplomatic relations rather than being treated only as technical or environmental matters.
5. Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM)
A coordinated approach to managing water, land and related resources across an entire river basin. It supports flood control, environmental protection, sustainable water use and cooperation between countries.
6. Benefit Sharing
An approach that focuses on distributing the economic and environmental benefits of shared rivers rather than only dividing water quantities. It includes joint hydropower projects, electricity trade, irrigation, navigation and flood management.
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Consider the following statements regarding transboundary water governance:
How many of the statements given above are correct?
2. Match List-I with List-II:
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
3. Consider the following statements regarding the Indus Waters Treaty:
How many of the statements given above are correct?
4. Match List-I with List-II:
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
5. Consider the following statements regarding India-China water relations:
How many of the statements given above are correct?
6. Consider the following statements regarding India-Bangladesh water relations:
How many of the statements given above are correct?
7. Match List-I with List-II:
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
8. Assertion (A):
The geographical position of upper-riparian and lower-riparian countries creates differences in their interests regarding shared river systems.
Reason (R):
Upstream countries have greater control over the development of river infrastructure, while downstream countries depend on predictable river flows for agriculture, drinking water and other requirements.
Select the correct answer:
9. Consider the following statements regarding ecological challenges in transboundary river systems:
How many of the statements given above are correct?
10. Match List-I with List-II:
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
11. Consider the following statements regarding India-Bhutan hydropower cooperation:
How many of the statements given above are correct?
12. Assertion (A):
Existing transboundary water treaties increasingly require provisions for flexible water management during extreme climatic conditions.
Reason (R):
Many older water-sharing agreements were negotiated before present-day concerns relating to glacier retreat, changing rainfall patterns and extreme hydrological events became prominent.
Select the correct answer:
13. Match List-I with List-II:
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
14. Consider the following statements regarding the future of transboundary water cooperation:
How many of the statements given above are correct?
15. Match List-I with List-II:
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
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